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UNIVERSITY    OF    ILLINOIS    BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXI  September  24,  1923  No.  4 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912.  Acceptance  for  mailing  at  the  special  rate  of  postage  provided  for  in 
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EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  22 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


PROVISIONS 

FOR   THE   INDIVIDUAL   DIFFERENCES  OF 

HIGH  SCHOOL   PUPILS 

By 

Charles  W.  Odell 
Associate,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


ho.  22 

Provisions  for  the  Individual  Differences 
of  High  School  Pupils 

Provisions  for  individual  differences  do  not  necessarily  involve 
the  use  of  standardized  tests.  A  great  deal  has  been  written  and  said 
within  the  last  few  years  concerning  the  matter  of  providing  for  the 
individual  differences  of  pupils.  This  has  been  especially  true  since 
the  introduction  of  standardized  tests  of  general  intelligence  and 
achievement,  altho  their  use  is  not  necessarily  involved.  Many  per- 
sons have,  however,  assumed  that  the  one  involves  the  other  and  as 
a  result  there  has  arisen  a  considerable  amount  of  confusion  in  the 
discussion  of  both  provisions  for  individual  differences  and  the  use 
of  standardized  tests.  Persons  who  have  been  strong  advocates  of 
the  former  have  taken  for  granted  that  the  results  of  tests  should  be 
the  basis  of  classifying  pupils,  while  others  who  are  opposed  to  segre- 
gating pupils  on  the  basis  of  ability  have  denounced  the  use  of  stand- 
ardized tests,  apparently  not  realizing  that  they  can  be  used  for  other 
purposes.  The  same  thing  has  been  true  from  the  other  side,  that  is, 
persons  who  believed  or  disbelieved  in  the  use  of  tests  have  allowed 
their  attitude  on  that  subject  to  influence  their  belief  about  providing 
for  individual  differences.  Therefore  the  writer  is  anxious  to  empha- 
size the  fact  that  neither  one  has  any  necessary  dependence  upon  or 
connection  with  the  other.  Provisions  were  being  made  for  individual 
differences  long  before  standardized  tests  were  introduced.  Likewise 
standardized  tests  are  used  for  many  purposes  that  have  no  connec- 
tion with  providing  for  individual  differences. 

Plans  vs.  their  execution.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  plans 
for  taking  care  of  individual  differences  may  be  good  but  that  their 
execution  may  be  faulty.  For  example,  the  plan  of  arranging  homo- 
geneous groups  of  pupils  according  to  their  ability  may  be  a  desira- 
ble one  but  impossible  to  carry  out  because  we  are  not  yet  able  to 
ascertain  the  true  ability  of  pupils.  Likewise,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
provide  for  individual  differences  by  maximum  and  minimum  courses 
but  we  may  not  be  able  to  determine  what  the  content  of  these  courses 
should  be.  A  confusion  of  these  two  factors  similar  to  that  regarding 
provisions  for  individual  differences  and  standardized  tests  has  arisen. 
Plans  that  are  probably  very  good  are  condemned  merely  because 
the  schools  using  them  have  not  been  able  to  carry  them  out  effi- 
ciently.   In  considering  the  plans  described  in  this  circular  it  should 

[3] 


be  remembered  that  practically  none  of  them  have  been  tried  out 
under  ideal  conditions  and  probably  most  of  them  can  not  be  for  a 
considerable  time  to  come,  if  ever.  If  favorable  results  are  obtained 
from  their  use  at  present  it  is  possible  that  still  more  favorable  results 
can  be  obtained  in  the  future,  while  if  neutral  or  positively  unfavor- 
able results  are  obtained  it  is  possible  that  these  are  due  to  weak- 
nesses in  execution  and  not  in  the  plan  itself. 

Limitations  of  high  schools  in  providing  for  individual  dif- 
ferences. In  the  matter  of  making  provisions  for  individual  differ- 
ences high  schools  as  contrasted  with  elementary  schools  suffer  certain 
disadvantages.  Probably  the  chief  difficulty  is  that  the  high  school 
enrollment  is  usually  much  smaller  than  that  in  the  elementary 
school.  As  many  of  the  plans  suggested  and  used  require  the  group- 
ing of  pupils  according  to  differences  of  some  sort,  it  is  often  an 
advantage  to  have  a  rather  large  number  of  pupils  to  deal  with.  The 
fact  that  high  schools  offer  a  more  differentiated  curriculum  results  in 
a  still  further  division  of  the  high  school  pupils,  especially  those  in 
the  upper  years,  so  that  the  enrollment  in  any  one  class  is  often  too 
small  to  justify  the  organization  of  more  than  one  section.  Another 
difficulty  is  caused  by  the  difference  between  the  subject-matter 
taught  in  high  schools  and  that  in  elementary  schools.  Because  of 
this  difference  it  is  usually  considered  unwise,  if  not  practically  im- 
possible, for  even  a  very  bright  high-school  pupil  to  skip  the  work 
of  a  whole  semester  or  year  as  elementary  pupils  frequently  do.  De- 
spite the  difficulties,  however,  a  number  of  high  schools  are  making 
more  or  less  adequate  provision  for  individual  differences.  In  doing 
so  they  are  probably  aided  by  one  or  two  distinctive  features  of  the 
high  school.  One  of  these  is  that  promotion  in  the  high  school  is 
almost  entirely  by  subjects.  By  controlling  the  number  of  subjects 
carried  by  a  pupil  the  work  can,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  adapted  to 
his  ability.  Probably  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  high  school  over 
the  elementary  school  lies  in  the  differentiated  curriculum  which  was 
mentioned  above  as  being  also  a  disadvantage.  Through  its  very 
differentiation  the  varying  interests  of  high-school  pupils  can  be  taken 
care  of  in  a  way  that  is  impossible  in  most,  if  not  all,  elementary 
schools. 

Plans  actually  in  use  in  high  schools.  Among  the  plans  actu- 
ally in  use  in  high  schools  are  those  that  will  be  described.  A  few 
have  been  used  only  in  an  experimental  way,  but  several  of  them 
are  settled  policies  in  many  schools. 

[4] 


1.  Variation  in  amount  of  work  carried.  Probably  the  most 
commonly  used  plan  is  the  one  which  allows  superior  pupils  to  carry 
more  than  the  regular  amount  of  work  and  requires  inferior  pupils 
to  carry  less.  There  are  very  few  high  schools  in  which  at  least  a 
few  pupils  are  not  carrying  extra  work.  This  phase  is  probably  more 
common  than  that  of  requiring  inferior  pupils  to  drop  a  part  of  their 
work.  In  many  ways  this  plan  yields  good  results.  Some  schools 
allow  a  few  of  the  brightest  pupils  to  carry  enough  extra  work  that 
they  can  be  graduated  in  three  years  and  most  schools  organized 
upon  the  semester  plan  make  it  possible  for  bright  pupils  to  be  grad- 
uated in  three  and  one-half  years.  On  the  other  hand,  if  pupils  wish 
to  do  so  they  may  remain  in  school  the  full  four  years  and  earn  extra 
credits,  thus  broadening  their  high  school  course  rather  than  hasten- 
ing its  completion.  The  basis  of  determining  which  pupils  shall  carry 
extra  work  is  usually  to  allow  all  those  reaching  a  certain  standard 
in  their  school  marks  to  do  so  if  they  wish.  It  is  probably  wise  to 
require  that  such  a  standard  be  reached,  altho  it  would  probably 
be  well  to  supplement  this  requirement  with  results  from  intelligence 
tests,  the  opinions  of  the  teachers,  etc. 

The  other  part  of  the  plan,  that  having  to  do  with  inferior  pupils, 
is  more  doubtful  in  its  advisability.  It  has  not  yet  been  definitely 
proven  that  by  requiring  pupils  to  carry  less  than  the  normal  amount 
of  work  the  quality  of  their  work  is  improved.  Data  from  some 
schools  appear  to  show  that  this  result  will  follow,  whereas  those 
from  others  do  not.  The  writer  is  inclined  to  believe,  however,  that 
if  the  plan  is  properly  administered  the  variations  found  are  rather 
among  types  of  individuals  than  schools.  Dull  pupils  who  are  doing 
their  best  work  and  still  are  unable  to  make  passing  marks  in  four 
subjects  are  likely  to  do  better  work  in  the  remaining  three  if  one  of 
the  four  is  dropped,  whereas  pupils  whose  poor  work  is  due  rather 
to  their  idleness  or  dislike  of  the  subject  than  to  their  mental  in- 
feriority are  not  likely  to  improve  their  work  in  other  subjects  if  one 
is  dropped.  Thus  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  and  principal  must  be 
exercised  to  determine  which  pupils  shall  be  required  to  do  less  than 
the  regular  amount  of  work  rather  than  having  a  fixed  rule  that  any 
pupil  making  marks  below  a  certain  standard  must  do  so.  On  the 
whole,  the  plan  of  making  some  adaptation  of  the  amount  of  work 
carried  to  the  ability  of  the  pupil  is  a  good  one  and  should  have  a 
permanent  place  in  all  high  schools. 

[5] 


2.  The  organization  of  sections  according  to  ability.  The  plan 
of  grouping  pupils  according  to  their  ability  is  the  one  concerning 
which  there  has  been  the  most  recent  discussion.  Ordinarily  this 
grouping  is  made  by  dividing  all  the  pupils  taking  the  same  work 
into  a  number  of  sections,  one  of  which  contains  the  best  pupils, 
another  the  next  best  and  so  on.  A  number  of  criteria  of  classifica- 
tion have  been  used.  Among  these  are  the  results  from  intelligence 
and  achievement  tests,  school  marks  (either  in  the  grades  or  in  high 
school),  teachers'  estimates  of  ability  or  capacity,  and  various  com- 
binations of  these.  In  high  schools  that  are  large  enough  to  carry 
out  such  a  plan  in  part,  if  not  all,  of  their  classes  it  is  probably 
desirable  to  do  so.  It  is  often  practically  impossible  to  prepare  a 
schedule  that  will  permit  the  most  complete  grouping  of  pupils 
according  to  ability  but  a  fair  degree  of  such  grouping  can  usually 
be  allowed.  Such  a  plan  is  greatly  facilitated  if  the  schedule  can  be 
so  arranged  that  all  sections  of  the  same  class  meet  at  the  same  time. 

3.  Grouping  within  the  recitation  section  according  to  ability. 
In  the  case  of  classes  that  are  too  small  to  sub-divide  into  sepa- 
rate sections  divisions  may  be  made  within  the  single  class  or  recita- 
tion section.  How  this  is  done  can  probably  best  be  illustrated  by  an 
actual  example  drawn  from  the  writer's  own  experience.  The  fresh- 
man algebra  class  of  a  small  high  school  consisted  of  thirty  students 
and  not  more  than  one  period  per  day  could  be  allowed  for  its  recita- 
tions. Therefore  a  plan  of  dividing  the  class  into  three  groups  was 
worked  out.  Eight  or  nine  pupils  were  placed  in  the  superior  group, 
as  many  in  the  inferior,  and  the  twelve  or  fourteen  remaining  in  the 
average  group.  The  pupils  of  all  three  groups  came  to  class  at  the 
regular  time  and  remained  there  during  the  whole  period  just  as  if 
the  class  had  not  been  divided.  Upon  arriving,  however,  the  pupils 
of  the  average  and  inferior  groups  at  once  began  to  study,  while  the 
teacher  started  the  recitation  with  the  superior  group.  Only  a  short 
time  was  consumed  in  straightening  out  the  difficulties  of  this  group 
and  perhaps  assigning  problems  to  be  put  on  the  board,  after  which 
the  teacher  passed  on  to  the  average  and  later  to  the  inferior  group. 
By  the  time  he  had  completed  the  circuit  the  superior  group  was 
ready  for  discussion  of  the  work  on  the  board.  When  this  was  com- 
pleted the  average  group  was  ready  and  then  the  inferior.  In  the 
particular  school  in  which  this  was  used  the  recitation  period  was 
sixty  minutes  in  length  but  the  teacher  found  that  it  practically  never 
required  more  than  forty-five  and  usually  no  more  than  forty  to 

[6] 


complete  the  work  with  the  three  sections.  At  the  same  time  and  in 
the  same  school  another  teacher  divided  a  sophomore  geometry  class 
into  two  sections  and  worked  according  to  the  same  general  plan. 
Such  a  division  of  a  class  is  undesirable,  if  not  impossible,  in  some 
high-school  subjects.  Those  subjects  in  which  a  large  part  of  the 
value  obtained  from  the  class  work  comes  from  the  discussion  and 
interchange  of  opinion  could  not  well  be  handled  in  this  way.  The 
plan  is  desirable  in  most,  if  not  all,  high-school  mathematics,  in  be- 
ginning foreign  language,  and  perhaps  in  some  other  subjects. 

a.  The  basis  of  grouping  pupils.  As  was  said  above  there  are 
a  number  of  bases  or  criteria  of  classification  that  may  be  used  in 
dividing  pupils  into  recitation  sections  or  into  groups  within  a  single 
class.  It  has  not  yet  been  determined  just  what  the  best  basis  is. 
For  example,  in  a  Long  Beach,  California,  (5)1  high-school  freshmen 
have  been  grouped  into  four  sections  in  English  according  to  their 
scores  upon  the  Otis  Scale.  In  a  St.  Louis  (7)  high  school  results  of 
the  same  scale  and  of  achievement  tests,  and  the  pupils'  interests 
and  aptitudes  are  the  bases  of  classification.  In  the  Arlington,  Mas- 
sachusetts, (6)  high-school  pupils  are  classified  into  three  groups  on 
the  basis  of  their  marks  in  the  same  subject  if  they  have  carried  it 
before;  if  not,  those  in  similar  subjects  are  used.  In  Arlington  pupils 
are  also  reclassified  every  two  months.  Many  other  examples  could 
be  cited.  A  recent  study  (3)  of  provisions  in  the  junior  and  senior 
high  schools  of  fifty  cities,  all  of  which  are  interested  in  this  work, 
showed  that  in  53  percent  of  them  the  basis  of  classification  was  a 
combination  of  intelligence  test  results  and  teachers'  estimates,  in 
40  percent  a  combination  of  intelligence  test  results  and  school  marks, 
and  in  the  remaining  7  percent  school  marks  alone  were  used.  It  is 
probable  that  a  combination  of  several,  if  not  all,  of  the  items  men- 
tioned above,  perhaps  with  some  additions,  is  best.  The  writer  would 
recommend  that  in  the  original  grouping  of  pupils  the  average  results 
from  two  group  intelligence  tests  or  one  individual  test  should  be  the 
chief  factor,  but  should  be  supplemented  by  whatever  other  informa- 
tion is  available.  Except  in  the  case  of  pupils  of  very  poor  health  he 
would  recommend  that  all  pupils  who  appear  to  be  of  superior  in- 
telligence be  given  the  chance  to  work  in  a  superior  section.  Un- 
doubtedly some  of  these  will  have  to  be  shifted  to  lower  sections  be- 
cause of  errors  in  the  test  results,  their  indolence  or  some  other  reason. 
Likewise  there  will  be  certain  pupils  who  should  be  shifted  from 


lrThe  numbers  in  parentheses  refer  to  the  references  at  the  close. 

[7] 


other  sections  into  the  superior  section.  These  are  pupils  who  ap- 
parently did  not  do  themselves  justice  upon  the  tests  of  intelligence 
or  who,  altho  only  of  average  intelligence,  have  such  a  great  liking 
for  their  work,  or  such  unusual  perseverance  and  studiousness,  that 
they  are  able  to  do  work  of  a  superior  quality.  It  is  probable  that 
there  will  be  fewer  pupils  in  this  group  than  in  the  number  of  those 
who  do  not  do  the  work  that  might  be  expected  according  to  the  re- 
sults of  intelligence  tests. 

b.  The  number  of  sections  or  groups.  Another  question  that 
arises  in  connection  with  the  general  plan  of  grouping  is  concerning 
the  optimum  number  of  groups.  If  the  groups  are  each  separate 
recitation  sections  probably  the  best  plan  is  as  follows:  After  the 
standard  size  of  section  has  been  determined  the  first  section  is  com- 
posed of  the  proper  number  of  those  ranking  highest,  the  next  section 
of  the  proper  number  coming  next,  and  so  on  until  the  last  contains 
those  ranking  lowest.  Some  have  argued  that  the  number  in  the 
different  sections  should  not  be  the  same  but  it  has  at  least  not  been 
proved  that  it  is  wise  to  make  any  difference  in  this  matter.  In 
grouping  within  a  class  three  groups  is  probably  the  desirable  num- 
ber to  have.  Pupils  tend  to  be  divided  into  three  groups,  superior, 
average,  and  inferior.  Two  groups  are  frequently  used  but  in  this 
case  either  the  superior  or  inferior  pupils  are  neglected  or  the  aver- 
age pupils  are  grouped  partly  with  the  superior  and  partly  with  the 
inferior,  altho  they  belong  with  neither.  More  than  three  groups  are 
rather  difficult  to  handle.  In  forming  three  groups  the  average  group 
should  usually  contain  almost  one-half  of  the  pupils  and  each  of  the 
others  approximately  one-fourth. 

c.  The  work  done  by  groups  that  differ  on  the  basis  of  ability. 
There  are  at  least  two  distinct  theories  as  to  what  should  be  done 
with  pupils  of  differing  abilities  after  they  have  been  placed  in  homo- 
geneous groups.  One  is  that  all  the  groups  or  sections  should  cover 
the  same  work  at  different  rates  and  the  other  that  the  better  sections 
should  do  more  intensive  or  extensive  work  than  the  poorer  ones. 
The  former  plan  is  probably  easier  from  the  standpoint  of  instruction, 
the  latter  from  that  of  general  school  administration.  It  is  much 
easier  for  the  teacher  to  present  the  same  material  three  times  tho 
at  different  rates  than  to  have  to  organize  a  minimum  essentials 
course,  to  supplement  this  for  the  average  group  and  to  supplement 
it  still  further  for  the  superior  group.  If  the  plan  of  progressing  at 
different  rates  is  followed  it  will  result  in  some  sections  completing 

[8] 


the  work  before  the  end  of  the  semester  or  year,  and  the  question 
will  arise  as  to  what  use  is  to  be  made  of  the  remaining  time.  There 
are  several  possible  answers.  More  work  in  the  same  subject  may 
be  covered  and  perhaps  extra  credit  given  for  it.  This  is  probably 
the  best  solution,  altho  administrative  difficulties  are  often  involved. 
In  some  schools  the  pupils  completing  the  work  are  released  from 
further  attendance  at  class  in  that  subject  so  that  they  can  give  more 
time  to  other  subjects.  However,  these  pupils  are  usually  the  very 
ones  who  do  not  need  extra  time  to  spend  upon  their  other  subjects. 
Probably  the  chief  objection  to  varying  the  amount  of  work  done  by 
the  different  sections  is  that  the  pupils  of  the  superior  sections  do 
not  like  to  do  extra  work  without  receiving  extra  credit.  Such  credit 
may  be  given  or  the  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  a  skilful  handling 
of  the  situation.  It  has  been  shown  that  it  is  possible  to  motivate  the 
work  so  that  the  brighter  pupils  will  not  object  to  doing  a  greater 
amount  than  the  others. 

Whether  the  plan  for  providing  different  rates  of  progress  or 
minimum  and  maximum  courses  is  best  is  a  question  that  the  writer 
can  not  answer.  One's  general  philosophy  of  education  largely  deter- 
mines his  opinion.  Some  persons  believe  that  it  is  desirable  to  gain 
as  much  time  as  possible,  others  that  the  time  of  preparation  should 
not  be  shortened  but  that  better  preparation  should  be  given  dur- 
ing this  time.  As  is  often  the  case  probably  the  best  procedure  is  a 
compromise  between  the  two  extremes.  That  is  to  say,  superior 
pupils  should  probably  do  more  work  than  inferior  pupils  but  not  so 
much  more  that  they  are  prevented  from  gaining  some  time.  For 
example,  a  superior  section  that  might  do  the  regular  ten  months' 
work  in  eight  had  probably  better  do  it  in  nine  and  do  some  extra 
work  along  with  it.  From  the  standpoint  of  administration,  however, 
it  is  often  necessary  that  if  a  group  does  any  extra  work  at  all  it 
do  enough  to  complete  an  entire  extra  unit.  Thus  the  choice  might 
be  between  doing  only  two  semesters  of  work  at  the  regular  rate  but 
doing  it  much  more  intensively  and  extensively  and  doing  three 
semesters  of  work  in  two.  The  writer  does  not  wish  to  suggest  which 
one  of  these  alternatives  is  the  better  but  merely  to  say  that  probably 
either  one  is  better  than  neither. 

4.  Credit  for  quality.  A  plan  for  taking  care  of  individual  dif- 
ferences that  has  not  come  into  wide  use  and  probably  will  not  in 
the  near  future,  is  that  of  credit  for  quality  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  of  fractional  credits.    In  this  plan  there  is  a  graduated  scale 

[9] 


of  credits  according  to  school  marks,  1.0  credit  being  given  for  an 
average  mark  of,  say  85  percent,  perhaps  1.1  for  a  mark  of  90,  1.2 
for  one  of  95,  .9  for  one  of  80,  and  .8  for  one  of  75.  The  chief  argu- 
ment for  this  plan  is  that  instead  of  requiring  the  better  pupils  to 
scatter  their  efforts  over  more  than  the  ordinary  number  of  subjects 
in  order  to  be  graduated  in  a  shorter  time,  this  can  be  accomplished 
by  concentrating  upon  the  regular  number  of  subjects.  In  other 
words,  the  advocates  of  this  plan  believe  in  intensive  rather  than 
extensive  work,  at  least  as  regards  the  number  of  subjects  carried. 
The  chief  hindrance  to  the  general  use  of  this  plan  is  that  only  a 
few  higher  institutions  will  allow  the  extra  credit  earned  in  this  way 
to  count  toward  their  entrance  requirements.  Some  years  ago  the 
University  of  Chicago  High  School  (9)  introduced  this  plan  and  the 
University  itself  agreed  to  accept  credits  earned  in  this  way.  The 
plan  was  also  introduced  in  a  division  of  the  University  of  Missouri. 
So  far,  however,  very  few  high  schools  have  adopted  the  plan  in  its 
entirety.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  schools  to  have  a  double  system  of 
bookkeeping,  one  of  which  counts  credits  in  the  usual  way  for  pur- 
poses of  college  entrance  and  probably  graduation,  the  other  of  which 
counts  credits  or  points  according  to  the  quality  of  work  and  is  used 
as  the  basis  of  awarding  various  honors. 

5.  Individual  instruction  and  progress.  A  plan  that  has  often 
been  advocated  and  has  received  a  fair  amount  of  trial  in  elementary 
schools  but  has  been  only  rarely  used  in  high  schools,  is  that  of  abso- 
lutely individual  instruction  and  progress.  The  Pueblo  plan  (10)  is 
probably  the  best  known  of  this  type.  As  Superintendent  Search 
said,  the  Pueblo  plan  provided  for  individual  work,  individual  prog- 
ress, individual  promotion,  and  individual  graduation  in  both  elemen- 
tary and  high  school.  A  number  of  advantages  are  claimed  by 
Superintendent  Search  and  others.  Among  them  are  that  pupils  en- 
joy better  health,  develop  more  self-reliance,  do  more  work,  do  it 
better  and  more  enthusiastically,  suffer  less  discouragement,  and 
have  more  opportunity  for  outside  work.  Winnetka,  Illinois,  (11)  is 
also  well  known  as  a  city  that  has  adopted  this  plan.  Here,  how- 
ever, the  high  school  is  not  concerned,  as  there  is  none  in  the  city. 
It  seems  unquestionable  that  the  successful  operation  of  this  plan 
requires  unusually  able  teachers  and  probably  also  special  training 
on  their  part.  Many,  if  not  most,  educators  object  to  it  on  the  ground 
that  many  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  gained  from  school 
and  especially  from  high  school  result  from  class  discussion  and  other 

[10] 


group  and  social  activity.  This  plan  reduces  such  activity  to  a  min- 
imum, really  doing  away  with  it  in  the  regular  subjects.  It  is  also 
somewhat  difficult  to  administer  and  necessitates  a  rather  elaborate 
system  of  bookkeeping  to  keep  track  of  the  progress  of  each  pupil. 
Theoretically,  it  should  result  in  there  being  no  failures  as  each  pupil 
is  supposed  to  stay  with  each  piece  of  work  until  he  has  satisfactorily 
mastered  it.  On  the  whole,  the  plan  may  be  dismissed  with  the  com- 
ment that  while  it  undoubtedly  has  many  theoretical  advantages  we 
can  not  expect  many  schools  to  adopt  it  soon. 

6.  Length  of  unit  of  work.  A  feature  of  school  organization  that 
tends  to  make  provision  for  individual  differences  easier  is  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  work  of  the  year  into  shorter  units.  It  is  now  fairly 
general  to  find  the  semester  plan  of  organization  rather  than  the 
annual  in  large  and  medium-sized  cities;  also  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  the  year  divided  into  three  terms  instead  of  two  semesters.  A 
few  schools  have  gone  even  further  than  this  and  divided  the  year 
into  four  quarters.  As  was  mentioned  above,  in  the  Arlington  high 
school  pupils  are  reclassified  every  two  months.  The  chief  advan- 
tage of  the  shorter  unit  from  the  standpoint  of  caring  for  individual 
differences  is  that  if  a  pupil  fails  he  loses  less  time.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  other  advantages.  '  Pupils  who  are  able  to  carry  some 
extra  work  but  not  a  great  deal  can  probably  do  so  better  by  carry- 
ing an  extra  subject  for  a  comparatively  short  time,  then  only  the 
regular  amount  for  a  while,  and  then  an  extra  subject  again.  Like- 
wise pupils  who  are  carrying  slightly  too  much  can  reduce  the  amount 
for  a  short  time  and  perhaps  later  take  the  normal  amount  again 
after  having  suffered  the  loss  of  only  a  small  amount.  The  plan  has, 
however,  some  disadvantages.  Much  of  our  high-school  work  is 
probably  injured  by  being  broken  up  into  small  units.  There  is  a 
belief  among  many  teachers  that  even  the  semester  is  too  short  as 
a  unit  in  which  to  organize  the  work  in  many  subjects.  It  is  of  course 
possible  to  organize  the  work  in  year  units  and  yet  reclassify  pupils 
oftener,  but  doing  the  latter  tends  to  break  up  the  year-unit  organi- 
zation. The  advantages  resulting  from  a  shorter  division  than  the 
semester  are  probably  not  enough  greater  than  the  disadvantages  to 
warrant  its  introduction  into  high  school. 

7.  Basing  marks  on  quantity  as  well  as  quality.  The  plan  of 
offering  maximum  and  minimum  courses  has  been  mentioned  in  a 
previous  paragraph.  Some  schools  make  use  of  what  is  really  a  varia- 
tion of  this  plan  which  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  credit  for  quantity 

[11] 


as  well  as  quality.  According  to  this  plan  the  same  work  is  pursued 
by  all  the  members  of  the  class  but  there  are  certain  extra  assign- 
ments which  must  be  done  by  pupils  to  earn  marks  above  the  aver- 
age. If  a  mark  of  85,  for  example,  is  considered  average,  a  pupil 
must  do  a  certain  amount  of  supplementary  work  to  make  a  mark  of 
90,  a  still  greater  amount  to  receive  a  mark  of  95,  etc.  The  high 
mark  is  not  given  for  merely  doing  the  extra  work  but  its  quality 
must  also  be  satisfactory.  In  the  formal  use  of  this  plan  certain  defi- 
nite work  is  assigned  and  the  pupils  who  wish  to  try  for  high  marks 
do  so  with  full  knowledge  of  the  purpose.  The  amount  of  this  work 
is  more  or  less  governed  by  the  principle  that  all  pupils  should  spend 
approximately  the  same  amount  of  time  in  completing  their  assign- 
ments. The  bright  pupils  often  object  to  this  plan  as  they  feel  that 
they  should  receive  higher  marks  for  better  quality  without  being 
required  to  do  a  greater  quantity.  It  is  usually  possible,  however, 
to  make  most  pupils  see  that  it  is  fair  to  require  both  better  quality 
and  greater  quantity  for  a  higher  mark. 

Many  teachers  make  use  of  the  plan  just  described  in  a  more 
informal  way.  That  is,  they  do  not  definitely  announce  that  pupils 
must  do  a  greater  quantity  to  receive  higher  marks  but  in  giving 
individual  assignments  of  various  sorts  they  so  allot  them  that  the 
brighter  pupils  receive  the  more  difficult  and  longer  tasks  and  are 
probably  also  held  to  a  higher  standard  of  performance.  In  this  case 
it  is  not  so  evident  that  the  brighter  pupils  are  really  doing  more  in 
quantity  than  the  poorer  pupils  and  often  they  are  not  fully  aware 
that  they  are.  Sometimes  the  term  "varied"  or  "individual"  assign- 
ments is  given  to  this  informal  plan. 

8.  Special  periods  for  taking  care  of  individual  differences.  A 
plan  that  has  been  used  in  the  elementary  and  junior-high  schools 
and  that  might  also  be  used  in  the  regular  high  school  is  that  in  use 
at  Drumright,  Oklahoma  (8).  According  to  this  plan  one  or  two 
periods  of  each  day  are  set  aside  for  special  work.  The  general  or- 
ganization is  lost  sight  of  and  the  pupils  grouped  with  the  different 
teachers  in  such  a  way  as  to  meet  their  interest  and  needs  in  the 
best  possible  manner.  Out  of  the  total  group  of  pupils  each  teacher 
selects  those  to  whom  she  thinks  it  would  be  profitable  to  give  special 
work  of  some  kind  or  other.  A  certain  teacher  is  given  first  choice 
and  selects  a  group  of  about  average  class  size,  another  teacher  then 
selects  her  group,  a  third  hers,  and  so  on.  The  groups  remain 
as  thus  formed  for  six  weeks  after  which  they  are  disbanded  and 

[12] 


new  groups  formed,  another  teacher  getting  first  choice  this  time. 
In  general  the  teachers  who  come  near  the  head  of  the  list  select 
groups  of  bright  pupils  and  give  them  extra  work  of  some  sort, 
whereas  those  who  come  near  the  end  of  the  list  have  dull  pupils  and 
give  them  special  drill  or  remedial  instruction.  The  type  of  work  to 
be  given  is  largely,  if  not  entirely,  decided  by  each  teacher.  The 
plan  just  described  is  one  that  appears  to  have  worthwhile  possibili- 
ties. It  would  be  distinctly  difficult,  however,  to  organize  a  school 
having  the  usual  type  of  program  so  as  to  provide  for  this  special 
period.  In  a  large  high  school  it  would  require  so  long  for  the  first 
choice  to  rotate  among  all  the  teachers  that  certain  teachers  would 
be  near  the  head  of  the  list  for  several  years  and  others  near  the  end 
for  the  same  time.  This  could  perhaps  be  obviated  by  considering 
one  class  as  a  group  to  be  divided  by  certain  teachers  or  perhaps 
even  some  smaller  unit  than  this  might  be  taken. 

9.  Summer  and  other  special  work.  Some  high  schools  provide 
opportunities  for  pupils  to  carry  work  in  the  summer.  Tho  this  can 
probably  not  be  called  primarily  provision  for  individual  differences, 
yet  it  may  be  largely  so.  Often  the  pupils  who  attend  these  sessions 
are  either  the  inferior  ones  who  have  failed  and  wish  to  make  up 
their  work  or  the  superior  ones  who  wish  to  lessen  the  time  required 
for  graduation.  Closely  analagous  to  this  plan  is  that  of  allowing 
pupils  to  take  special  work  outside  of  school  but  during  the  time  of 
the  regular  school  session.  This  may  be  taken  under  a  tutor  or  in  an 
evening  school.  Here  again  the  inferior  and  superior  pupils  are 
probably  helped  more  than  the  average  ones.  The  pupils  who  do 
work  of  this  sort  are  often  allowed  to  take  an  examination  over  a 
subject  wherein  they  have  failed  or  in  which  they  are  trying  to  get 
extra  credit  and  if  they  pass  the  examination  are  given  the  same 
credit  as  if  they  had  carried  and  passed  the  subject  in  the  regular 
high-school  course.  Most  inferior  pupils  probably  can  not  do  this 
work  to  advantage  as  by  taking  time  for  it  they  merely  lower  their 
standing  in  their  other  high-school  subjects,  but  superior  pupils  are 
often  able  to  do  it  without  running  this  danger.  In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, it  is  probably  better  to  allow  superior  pupils  to  carry  their  extra 
subjects  in  the  regular  high-school  classes. 

10.  Supervised  study.  Altho  not  primarily  intended  as  a  means 
of  caring  for  individual  differences,  supervised  study  has  shown  that 
it  offers  opportunities  for  so  doing.  Most,  if  not  all  of  these,  oppor- 
tunities are  in  connection  with  some  of  the  plans  mentioned  above. 

[13] 


For  example,  if  there  are  several  sections  within  the  same  class  the 
longer  period  that  usually  accompanies  supervised  study  is  a  decided 
advantage,  tho  not  a  necessity.  Likewise  in  handling  individual  or 
varied  assignments  a  supervised  study  system  makes  the  work  of 
the  teacher  much  easier.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  formal 
supplementary  assignments  for  superior  pupils  as  many  of  these 
assignments  can  not  well  be  taken  up  as  part  of  the  regular  recitation. 

Individual  differences  that  are  not  differences  in  ability.   The 

foregoing  discussion  of  provisions  for  individual  differences  has 
centered  around  individual  differences  in  mental  ability,  or  at  least 
in  the  application  of  mental  ability  to  school  work.  It  is  important 
to  remember,  however,  that  differences  of  this  sort  are  not  the  only 
differences  that  exist  among  high  school  pupils.  Probably  the  most 
important  of  the  other  differences  are  those  in  interests.  These 
manifest  themselves  especially  in  the  vocational  choices  and  the  recre- 
ations of  high-school  pupils.  Some  schools  are  recognizing  the  dif- 
ferences in  vocational  interests  and  allowing  them  to  play  a  part  in 
the  grouping  of  pupils.  There  is  no  reason  why  such  differences 
should  not  play  an  even  greater  part  than  they  do,  at  least  in  some 
subjects.  In  one  high  school  with  which  the  author  is  familiar  boys 
who  expect  to  go  into  some  form  of  engineering  work  form  one  sec- 
tion of  freshman  algebra,  girls  who  never  expect  to  make  any  further 
use  of  the  subject  form  another.  Likewise  in  freshman  English  there 
is  a  special  section  of  pupils  interested  in  journalism  and  two  or  three 
sections  of  those  whose  chief  interest  is  in  commercial  work.  Such  a 
differentiation  could  easily  and  profitably  be  extended  to  a  number 
of  high-school  subjects  besides  those  just  mentioned.  Differences  in 
recreational  and  other  interests,  in  attitudes,  physical  stamina,  etc., 
should  receive  large  attention  by  the  teacher  in  making  assignments 
of  individual  work,  in  calling  upon  the  pupils  for  discussion  of 
various  topics,  and  in  the  other  work  of  the  recitation.  The  extra- 
curricular activities  of  the  school  likewise  offer  many  opportunities 
for  giving  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  individual  differences. 

Bibliography.  The  first  four  of  the  references  given  below  pre- 
sent the  results  of  rather  extensive  studies  of  the  provisions  for  indi- 
vidual differences  actually  in  use.  The  others  describe  certain  plans 
illustrative  of  the  discussion  above. 

[14] 


I.Ayer,  F.  C.    "The  present  status  of  promotional  plans  in  city 
schools,"  American  School  Board  Journal,  66:37-39,  April,  1923. 

2.  Hughes,  W.  H.    "Provisions  for  individual  differences  in  high 

school  organization  and  administration,"  Journal  of  Educational 
Research,  5:62-71,  January,  1922. 

3.  Omans,  A.  C.  "Provision  for  ability  grouping  in  junior  and  senior 

high  school,"  American  School  Board  Journal,  65:55-58,  138, 
October,  1922. 

4.  Smith,  H.  L.    "Plans  for  saving  time  in  grades  VII-XII  inclu- 

sive," Fifth  Conference  on  Educational  Measurements,  Bulle- 
tin of  the  Extension  Division,  Vol.  4,  No.  4.  Bloomington:  In- 
diana University,  1918,  p.  74-91. 

5.  Branson,  E.  R.  "An  experiment  in  arranging  high-school  sections 

on  the  basis  of  general  ability,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, 3:53-55,  January,  1921. 

6.  Clerk,  F.  E.    "The  Arlington  plan  of  grouping  pupils  according 

to  ability  in  the  Arlington  High  School,  Arlington,  Massachu- 
setts," School  Review,  35:26-47,  January,  1917. 

7.  Cox,  P.  W.  L.   "Providing  for  individual  differences  by  means  of 

grouping  by  ability,"  Ninth  Annual  Schoolmen's  Week  Pro- 
ceedings, University  of  Pennsylvania  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  1, 
p.  233. 

8.  French,  W.  C.   "A  plan  of  organization  for  taking  care  of  bright 

pupils,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  24:103-08,  October,  1923. 

9.  Johnson,  F.W.  "Credit  for  courses  in  the  university  high  school," 

School  Review,  23:715-18,  December,  1915. 

10.  Search,  P.  W.    "Individual  teaching:  the  Pueblo  Plan,"  Educa- 

tional Review,  7:154-70,  February,  1894. 

11.  Washburne,  C.  W.   "Educational  measurement  as  a  key  to  indi- 

vidual instruction  and  promotions,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, 5:195-206,  March,  1922. 


[15] 


CIRCULARS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
RESEARCH,  COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION,  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA,  ILLINOIS 

No.  12.  Monroe,  Walter  S.  Announcements  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tional Research  for  1922-23. 

No.  13.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   Definitions  of  the  Terminology  of  Edu- 
cational Measurements. 

No.  14.  Streitz,  Ruth.   Gifted  Children  and  Provisions  for  Them  in 
Our  Schools. 

No.  15.  Monroe,  Walter  S.  Educational  Tests  for  Use  in  Elementary 
Schools. 

No.  16.  Odell,  Charles  W.    The  Effect  of  Attendance  Upon  School 
Achievement. 

No.  17.  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.    The  Elementary  School  Principal- 
ship. 

No.  18.  Monroe,  Walter  S.  Educational  Tests  for  Use  in  High  Schools. 

No.  19.  Streitz,  Ruth.    Provisions  for  Exceptional  Children  in   191 
Illinois  Cities. 

No.  20.  McClusky,  Frederick  Dean.    Place  of  Moving  Pictures  in 
Visual  Education. 

No.  21.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   Announcement  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tional Research  for  1923-24. 

No.  22.  Odell,  Charles  W.    Provisions  for  the  Individual  Differences 
of  High  School  Pupils. 

A  limited  number  of  copies  of  these  educational  circulars  are  available  for  free 
distribution  to  superintendents  and  teachers  in  Illinois.  We  shall  be  glad  to  add  to 
our  mailing  list  for  these  circulars  the  names  of  any  teachers  or  superintendents  who 
care  to  receive  them  regularly.  We  shall  be  glad  also  to  send  additional  copies  of  any 
circular  to  superintendents  or  principals  for  distribution  among  their  teachers.  Ad- 
dress all  communications  to  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research,  University  of 
Illinois. 


>l 


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